High School STEM collections

HeyMath! was founded in May 2000 by Nirmala Sankaran and Harsh Rajan on a worldview that there is no perfect education system. We're based in Chennai, India, and are privately funded. Contact our founders. We've made it our mission to create a flat world video curriculum by diligently seeking out proven best practices from great teachers and discerning parents around the world. Our highly capable Math editors then blend this collective wisdom into bite-sized animated and interactive explanations that provide concept clarification visually and help remove the fear of Math. HeyMath! lessons are developed with advice from the University of Cambridge and endorsed by the Singapore Teachers' Union. The resources contained in this collection offer a sample of the various lessons available through the HeyMath! program.

This course represents a more advanced version of the Algebra I course, with much material in common.

This course covers material vital for the California Standards test on Algebra II

This course covers material vital to success on the California Standards Test on Geometry

Lesson Plans and Creative Lessons for Algebra II

This unit talks about reproduction.

Great science animations/simulations

This collection is a complete high school or college course in Chemistry.

This collection is a full course of material in the form of a textbook. The textbook is provided by FHSST (Free High School Science Texts). FHSST is a project that aims to provide free science and mathematics textbooks for Grades 10 to 12 science learners. The project was initiated by young South African scientists, and now brings together scientists from around the world who are willing to contribute to the writing of the books. This FHSST Chemistry textbook contains a total of 23 chapters to be used in grades 10 through 12. At the end of this description is a complete Table of Contents. In this collection, you will find folders for each of the main sections (Matter and Materials, Chemical Change, and Chemical Systems). These folders include content across all three grade levels, G10, G11, G12. You will also find folders with just G10, just G11, and just G12 chapters if you are teaching a particular grade. TABLE OF CONTENTS II MATTER AND MATERIALS 1 Classification of Matter - Grade 10 1.1 Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.1.1 Heterogeneous mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.2 Homogeneous mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1.3 Separating mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2 Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2.2 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3 Giving names and formulae to substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Metals, Semi-metals and Non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.4.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.4.2 Non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.4.3 Semi-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5 Electrical conductors, semi-conductors and insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.6 Thermal Conductors and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.7 Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2 What are the objects around us made of? - Grade 10 2.1 Introduction: The atom as the building block of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2 Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2.1 Representing molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3 Intramolecular and intermolecular forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.4 The Kinetic Theory of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.5 The Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3 The Atom - Grade 10 3.1 Models of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.1.1 The Plum Pudding Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.1.2 Rutherford’s model of the atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.1.3 The Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.2 How big is an atom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2.1 How heavy is an atom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2.2 How big is an atom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3 Atomic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.3.1 The Electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.3.2 The Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4 Atomic number and atomic mass number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.5 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.5.1 What is an isotope? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.5.2 Relative atomic mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.6 Energy quantisation and electron configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.6.1 The energy of electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.6.2 Energy quantisation and line emission spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.6.3 Electron configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.6.4 Core and valence electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.6.5 The importance of understanding electron configuration . . . . . . . . . 51 3.7 Ionisation Energy and the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.7.1 Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.7.2 Ionisation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.8 The Arrangement of Atoms in the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.8.1 Groups in the periodic table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.8.2 Periods in the periodic table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4 Atomic Combinations - Grade 11 4.1 Why do atoms bond? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2 Energy and bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.3 What happens when atoms bond? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.4 Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.4.1 The nature of the covalent bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.5 Lewis notation and molecular structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.6 Electronegativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.6.1 Non-polar and polar covalent bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.6.2 Polar molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.7 Ionic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.7.1 The nature of the ionic bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.7.2 The crystal lattice structure of ionic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.7.3 Properties of Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.8 Metallic bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.8.1 The nature of the metallic bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.8.2 The properties of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.9 Writing chemical formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.9.1 The formulae of covalent compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.9.2 The formulae of ionic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.10 The Shape of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.10.1 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.10.2 Determining the shape of a molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.11 Oxidation numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 5 Intermolecular Forces - Grade 11 5.1 Types of Intermolecular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.2 Understanding intermolecular forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 5.3 Intermolecular forces in liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6 Solutions and solubility - Grade 11 6.1 Types of solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 6.2 Forces and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6.3 Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 7 Atomic Nuclei - Grade 11 7.1 Nuclear structure and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.2 The Discovery of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.3 Radioactivity and Types of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.3.1 Alpha (_) particles and alpha decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 7.3.2 Beta (_) particles and beta decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 7.3.3 Gamma () rays and gamma decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 7.4 Sources of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 7.4.1 Natural background radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 7.4.2 Man-made sources of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 7.5 The ’half-life’ of an element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 7.6 The Dangers of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 7.7 The Uses of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 7.8 Nuclear Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 7.8.1 The Atomic bomb - an abuse of nuclear fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 7.8.2 Nuclear power - harnessing energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 7.9 Nuclear Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 7.10 Nucleosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 7.10.1 Age of Nucleosynthesis (225 s - 103 s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 7.10.2 Age of Ions (103 s - 1013 s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 7.10.3 Age of Atoms (1013 s - 1015 s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 7.10.4 Age of Stars and Galaxies (the universe today) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 7.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 8 Thermal Properties and Ideal Gases - Grade 11 8.1 A review of the kinetic theory of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 8.2 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and volume of an enclosed gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 8.3 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature of an enclosed gas . . . . . . . . . . . 132 8.4 The relationship between temperature and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 8.5 The general gas equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 8.6 The ideal gas equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 8.7 Molar volume of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 8.8 Ideal gases and non-ideal gas behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 8.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 9 Organic Molecules - Grade 12 9.1 What is organic chemistry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 9.2 Sources of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 9.3 Unique properties of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 9.4 Representing organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 9.4.1 Molecular formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 9.4.2 Structural formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 9.4.3 Condensed structural formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 9.5 Isomerism in organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 9.6 Functional groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 9.7 The Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 9.7.1 The Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 9.7.2 Naming the alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 9.7.3 Properties of the alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 9.7.4 Reactions of the alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 9.7.5 The alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 9.7.6 Naming the alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 9.7.7 The properties of the alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 9.7.8 Reactions of the alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 9.7.9 The Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 9.7.10 Naming the alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 9.8 The Alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 9.8.1 Naming the alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 9.8.2 Physical and chemical properties of the alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 9.9 Carboxylic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 9.9.1 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 9.9.2 Derivatives of carboxylic acids: The esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 9.10 The Amino Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 9.11 The Carbonyl Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 9.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 10 Organic Macromolecules - Grade 12 10.1 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 10.2 How do polymers form? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 10.2.1 Addition polymerisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 10.2.2 Condensation polymerisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 10.3 The chemical properties of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 10.4 Types of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 10.5 Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 10.5.1 The uses of plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 10.5.2 Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 10.5.3 Plastics and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 10.6 Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 10.6.1 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 10.6.2 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 10.6.3 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 III CHEMICAL CHANGE 11 Physical and Chemical Change - Grade 10 11.1 Physical changes in matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 11.2 Chemical Changes in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 11.2.1 Decomposition reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 11.2.2 Synthesis reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 11.3 Energy changes in chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 11.4 Conservation of atoms and mass in reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 11.5 Law of constant composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 11.6 Volume relationships in gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 11.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 12 Representing Chemical Change - Grade 10 12.1 Chemical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 12.2 Writing chemical formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 12.3 Balancing chemical equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 12.3.1 The law of conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 12.3.2 Steps to balance a chemical equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 12.4 State symbols and other information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 12.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 13 Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change - Grade 11 13.1 The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 13.2 Molar Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 13.3 An equation to calculate moles and mass in chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . 237 13.4 Molecules and compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 13.5 The Composition of Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 13.6 Molar Volumes of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 13.7 Molar concentrations in liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 13.8 Stoichiometric calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 13.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 14 Energy Changes In Chemical Reactions - Grade 11 14.1 What causes the energy changes in chemical reactions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 14.2 Exothermic and endothermic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 14.3 The heat of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 14.4 Examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 14.5 Spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 14.6 Activation energy and the activated complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 15 Types of Reactions - Grade 11 15.1 Acid-base reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 15.1.1 What are acids and bases? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 15.1.2 Defining acids and bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 15.1.3 Conjugate acid-base pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 15.1.4 Acid-base reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 15.1.5 Acid-carbonate reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 15.2 Redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 15.2.1 Oxidation and reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 15.2.2 Redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 15.3 Addition, substitution and elimination reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 15.3.1 Addition reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 15.3.2 Elimination reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 15.3.3 Substitution reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 15.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 16 Reaction Rates - Grade 12 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 16.2 Factors affecting reaction rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 16.3 Reaction rates and collision theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 16.4 Measuring Rates of Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 16.5 Mechanism of reaction and catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 16.6 Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 16.6.1 Open and closed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 16.6.2 Reversible reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 16.6.3 Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 16.7 The equilibrium constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 16.7.1 Calculating the equilibrium constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 16.7.2 The meaning of kc values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 16.8 Le Chatelier’s principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 16.8.1 The effect of concentration on equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 16.8.2 The effect of temperature on equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 16.8.3 The effect of pressure on equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 16.9 Industrial applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 16.10Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 17 Electrochemical Reactions - Grade 12 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 17.2 The Galvanic Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 17.2.1 Half-cell reactions in the Zn-Cu cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 17.2.2 Components of the Zn-Cu cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 17.2.3 The Galvanic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 17.2.4 Uses and applications of the galvanic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 17.3 The Electrolytic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 17.3.1 The electrolysis of copper sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 17.3.2 The electrolysis of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 17.3.3 A comparison of galvanic and electrolytic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 17.4 Standard Electrode Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 17.4.1 The different reactivities of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 17.4.2 Equilibrium reactions in half cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 17.4.3 Measuring electrode potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 17.4.4 The standard hydrogen electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 17.4.5 Standard electrode potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 17.4.6 Combining half cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 17.4.7 Uses of standard electrode potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 17.5 Balancing redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 17.6 Applications of electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 17.6.1 Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 17.6.2 The production of chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 17.6.3 Extraction of aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 17.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 IV CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 18 The Water Cycle - Grade 10 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 18.2 The importance of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 18.3 The movement of water through the water cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 18.4 The microscopic structure of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 18.4.1 The polar nature of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 18.4.2 Hydrogen bonding in water molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 18.5 The unique properties of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 18.6 Water conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 18.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 19 Global Cycles: The Nitrogen Cycle – Grade 10 19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 19.2 Nitrogen fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 19.3 Nitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 19.4 Denitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 19.5 Human Influences on the Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 19.6 The industrial fixation of nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 19.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 20 The Hydrosphere - Grade 10 20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 20.2 Interactions of the hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 20.3 Exploring the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 20.4 The Importance of the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 20.5 Ions in aqueous solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 20.5.1 Dissociation in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 20.5.2 Ions and water hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 20.5.3 The pH scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 20.5.4 Acid rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 20.6 Electrolytes, ionisation and conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 20.6.1 Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 20.6.2 Non-electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 20.6.3 Factors that affect the conductivity of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 20.7 Precipitation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 20.8 Testing for common anions in solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 20.8.1 Test for a chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 20.8.2 Test for a sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 20.8.3 Test for a carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 20.8.4 Test for bromides and iodides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 20.9 Threats to the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 20.10Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 21 The Lithosphere - Grade 11 21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 21.2 The chemistry of the earth’s crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 21.3 A brief history of mineral use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 21.4 Energy resources and their uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 21.5 Mining and Mineral Processing: Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 21.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 21.5.2 Mining the Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 21.5.3 Processing the gold ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 21.5.4 Characteristics and uses of gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 21.5.5 Environmental impacts of gold mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 21.6 Mining and mineral processing: Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 21.6.1 Iron mining and iron ore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 21.6.2 Types of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 21.6.3 Iron in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 21.7 Mining and mineral processing: Phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 21.7.1 Mining phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 21.7.2 Uses of phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 21.8 Energy resources and their uses: Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 21.8.1 The formation of coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 21.8.2 How coal is removed from the ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 21.8.3 The uses of coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 21.8.4 Coal and the South African economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 21.8.5 The environmental impacts of coal mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 21.9 Energy resources and their uses: Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 21.9.1 How oil is formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 21.9.2 Extracting oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 21.9.3 Other oil products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 21.9.4 The environmental impacts of oil extraction and use . . . . . . . . . . . 415 21.10Alternative energy resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 21.11Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 22 The Atmosphere - Grade 11 22.1 The composition of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 22.2 The structure of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 22.2.1 The troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 22.2.2 The stratosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 22.2.3 The mesosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 22.2.4 The thermosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 22.3 Greenhouse gases and global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 22.3.1 The heating of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 22.3.2 The greenhouse gases and global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 22.3.3 The consequences of global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 22.3.4 Taking action to combat global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 22.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 23 The Chemical Industry - Grade 12 23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 23.2 Sasol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 23.2.1 Sasol today: Technology and production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 23.2.2 Sasol and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 23.3 The Chloralkali Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 23.3.1 The Industrial Production of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide . . . . . . . 442 23.3.2 Soaps and Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 23.4 The Fertiliser Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 23.4.1 The value of nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 23.4.2 The Role of fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 23.4.3 The Industrial Production of Fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 23.4.4 Fertilisers and the Environment: Eutrophication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 23.5 Electrochemistry and batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 23.5.1 How batteries work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 23.5.2 Battery capacity and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 23.5.3 Lead-acid batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 23.5.4 The zinc-carbon dry cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 23.5.5 Environmental considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 23.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

This collection will engage students in the discovery of genetics.

This collection of gravitation lessons were developed by Dr. Carl Pennypacker and his colleagues at UC Berkeley to use with middle and high school students.

The main goal of Algebra is to develop fluency in working with linear equations. In this course, students will work with tables, graphs, and equations and solve linear equations and inequalities and systems of linear equations and inequalities. Students will learn how to simplify polynomials and begin to study quadratic relationships, along with analyzing mathematical situations verbally, numerically, graphically, and symbolically. Throughout the course, students will have opportunities to apply mathematical skills and make meaningful connections to life’s experiences.

"Algebra Pinball" is a fun, online, math competition. Students (and friends and family!) can compete to get the best times on algebra and pre-algebra exercises, ranging from arithmetic with signed numbers to solving linear equations and factoring trinomials. Follow the link to see how it works at Miss Hall's School (Pittsfield, Massachusetts). Then, follow the instructions to get "Algebra Pinball" up-and-running in your own school! (Internet Explorer required)

The main goal of Geometry is for students to develop a Euclidean geometric structure and apply the resulting theorems and formulas to address meaningful problems. Students will use experimentation and inductive reasoning to construct geometric concepts, discover geometric relationships, and formulate conjectures. Students will employ deductive logic to prove theorems and justify conclusions. Students will extend their pre-existing experiences with algebra and geometry to trigonometry, coordinate geometry, and probability. Students will use GeoGebra, compass and straightedge applications, Voice Threads, and other tools to investigate and explore mathematical ideas and relationships and develop multiple strategies for analyzing complex situations. Students will apply mathematical skills and make meaningful connections to life’s experiences.

a guide to getting the maximum out of maxima

The main goal of Geometry is for students to develop a Euclidean geometric structure and apply the resulting theorems and formulas to address meaningful problems. Students will use experimentation and inductive reasoning to construct geometric concepts, discover geometric relationships, and formulate conjectures. Students will employ deductive logic to prove theorems and justify conclusions. Students will extend their pre-existing experiences with algebra and geometry to trigonometry, coordinate geometry, and probability. Students will use GeoGebra, compass and straightedge applications, Voice Threads, and other tools to investigate and explore mathematical ideas and relationships and develop multiple strategies for analyzing complex situations. Students will apply mathematical skills and make meaningful connections to life’s experiences.

This is from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Official abbreviations and conversions are given. Additional information on SI is included. A great reference for all science teachers.

This course covers both physical and cultural geography. Students learn various methods for defining place on the Earth's surface. Student's also investigate types of ecosystems and biomes. Various methods of how the Earth can be changed and modified naturally are then discussed, with students learning about earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, and erosion. Finally, economic systems are covered as well as political systems of government. The course emphasizes student application of core standards with information that is happening in real time.

Biology is a first-year Biology course. Students will be studying life and life systems with a close look at Ecology, Cellular Biology, Human Physiology, and Evolution. The use of media and technology will allow students to work individually and independently to understand life’s processes, scientific inquiry, research methods, and scientific design and problem solving. For example, in the first unit of study, students will research a parcel of land that is for sale and be able to construct an Environmental Impact Statement after analyzing the affects of development on the ecosystem.

Includes handouts, graphic organizers, activities, and guidelines for writing a 4-5 paragraph literary analysis essay.

The goal of this class is to familiarize students with basic computing principles and terminology. By engaging in real-world activities, students will become acquainted with modern technology and learn why it is important. When students understand how computers work, finding solutions to technological problems becomes a lot easier. We will be exploring topics such as computer hardware, software, document processing, and a variety of other useful applications.